The large copper (Lycaena dispar) is a butterfly of the family Lycaenidae. L. dispar has been commonly arranged into three subspecies: L. dispar dispar, (single-brooded) which was commonly found in England, but is now extinct, L. d. batavus, (single-brooded) can be found in the Netherlands and has been reintroduced into the United Kingdom, and lastly, L. d. rutilus, (double-brooded) which is widespread across central and southern Europe. The latter has been declining in many European countries, due to habitat loss. Currently L. dispar is in severe decline in northwest Europe, but expanding in central and northern Europe.
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TerrestrialTerrestrial animals are animals that live predominantly or entirely on land (e.g., cats, ants, snails), as compared with aquatic animals, which liv...
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OviparousOviparous animals are female animals that lay their eggs, with little or no other embryonic development within the mother. This is the reproductive...
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starts withFrom Seitz C. dispar Haw. (76). Very variable in size, many specimens being smaller than large rutilus ; differs from the latter in the larger spots of the underside, especially in the female. In the male an additional black spot appears frequently, but not always, in the centre of the cell on the upperside, this spot being in the female usually more than twice as large as in rutilus— ab. cuneigera Tutt are individuals in which the spot in the cell of the forewing is enlarged to a streak which occupies the greater part of the cell. ab. alba Tutt are albinotic specimens, such as occur in all species of coppers, bearing usually asymmetrical and irregular light patches on the wings in variable position. — rutilus Wernb. (= hippothoe Hbn.) (761, g) is the continental form of dispar; the forewing always without cell-spot, the discocellular spot smaller, or absent, the ocelli considerably smaller on the underside of both sexes and in the female also on the upperside. The springform of rutilus, vernalis Hormuz., rather closely resembles dispar in certain districts (e. g. Bordeaux, etc.), while the summer-form is considerably smaller. The dark spots are sometimes enlarged to streaks, which happens especially often on the underside; this is ab. sagittifera Hormuz. (76g). In ab. radiata Oberth. these streaks are also present on the hindwing, which is likewise the case in ab. nigrolineata Verity, whose redgolden upperside is said to be densely dusted with red. — In the east of the Region two forms are known: a reddish golden one in which the discal spots on the hindwing beneath are absent or obsolescent, while the row of submarginal spots on the forewing is very evenly developed and regular, dahurica Graes.
Lycaena dispar, is widely distributed in central Europe, as far north as southern Finland, extending across temperate Asia to the Amur region and to Manchuria Korea. Occurring throughout much of mainland Europe, L. dispar, is found between 40° and 60° latitudes.
Lycaena dispar is a wetland species in decline throughout Europe. The primary habitat of this butterfly has been drained for agricultural and other land usage, limiting their habitat. When it can, L. dispar will utilize plants growing away from watersides and among reed-fen vegetation. In this way L. dispar can avoid possible flooding that can occur in lower lying areas closer to the water's edge. The species prefers undisturbed grasslands along the riverbanks and stream banks, where its larval food plant, the greater water dock, (R. hydrolapathum) can be found.
Warmer microclimates, as well as warmer regions in general are preferred by L. dispar, allowing for faster growth time of larvae.
Land disturbances through agriculture, primarily the mowing of grass, and other foliage has a negative influence on populations of L. dispar, such that mowing shortly after egg-laying, will result in disastrous losses due to the eggs being destroyed and the newly hatched larvae being deprived of host plants, for food: L. dispar lays its eggs on host food plants, commonly low-lying, with larval migration limited to the area around their birth, host plant. For conservation purposes, it is highly recommended that L. dispar habitats be closely managed, with promotion in increased habitat heterogeneity, being most important: this strategy has proven beneficial for many other species of butterfly.
Lycaena dispar has a bivoltine life cycle, throughout most of its European distribution, stretching from May to June, and from the end of July to early September, with peak flight occurring in July. Two generations of L. dispar are standard, the first is characterized by fewer numbers, with the second generation producing more offspring that overwinter, as half-grown, third instar larvae. In the warmer parts (southern distribution) of its European habitat range, L. dispar can be capable of third generations. During the winter months, larvae enter diapause, a period of metabolic inactivity, that is characterized by the development of physiological tolerance to various environmental stressors: cold temperatures, starvation, in order to survive winter conditions. Overwinter survival can be greatly reduced due to flooding for prolonged periods of time, resulting in high mortality of L. dispar larvae in diapause.
Lycaena dispar larvae have three characteristic stages: pre-diapause in the autumn, winter diapause and post-diapause in the spring. Heavy mortality is common between oviposition (when females lay their eggs) in the late summer and the resumption of larval feeding in late spring: larvae begin feeding again in early may. In order to enter diapause, L. dispar uses temperature and photoperiodic indicators to determine when to start the overwinter process: entering diapause at low temperatures (<15°C) As well as temperature, environmental and endogenous factors also determine when larvae terminate diapause: generally when ambient temperature is high (>25°C).
Britain first attempted to reintroduce L. dispar in 1901, when G.H. Verbal released a number of caterpillars in Wicken Fen; however, due to a lack of host plants, the reintroduction was not viable. The first successful reintroduction of the species came in 1913, when W.B. Purefoy, established a colony of L. d. rutilus in Greenfields, Tipperary, a small bog made suitable for L. dispar through the planting of preferred food plants.
In 1915, Lycaena dispar batavus was described in the Netherlands, despite being almost indistinguishable from extinct L. d. dispar. L. d. batavus populations in Britain, occurred in the fenland area around Whittlesea Mere, extending to Yaxley and Holme Fens, all are characterized by acidic peat bogs, however this population is currently extant.
This species was formerly classified as a priority for protection and re-introduction in the UK under its national Biodiversity Action Plan. The species was driven to extinction in Britain by drainage and consequently great reduction of fen habitat. In the rest of the Western Europe, the draining of wetlands and building and agricultural activity on shallow riverbanks has caused a strong decline. In eastern Europe, undeveloped riverbanks and deltas are a habitat for the species, though even there it is somewhat threatened due increasing human influence on these areas.
There have been several reintroduction attempts to sites in both Britain and Ireland, but these have all ultimately failed. This is largely due to L. dispar stock being raised in captivity for long periods of time, before being released into the wild, resulting in adults that are maladapted to their natural environment, and ultimately do not survive. Research is now being conducted to see whether a further attempt is worthwhile in more extensive habitats available in the Great Fen project and the Norfolk Broads.
Today, L. dispar is a near threatened species in some regions, leading to a growing concern over its conservation. It is listed in the Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats, and is protected via Annexes II and IV of the European Community Habitats Directive. In order to boost population numbers, mass rearing would be beneficial, therefore further research is needed to improve survivorship of mass-reared, L. dispar individuals. Conservation efforts need to address the species' high sensitivity to climate and land usage, such as reclamation of wetlands for agricultural purposes and intensive management of grasslands through mowing of vegetation, having a negative influences on population numbers of L. dispar.
